As an aid to using the data-base and identifying and further studying the polities mentioned within this text, the listing below provides some basic information on the polities for which MSL references have been translated, locations where known, and further sources which can be consulted. The names given are those used in the index. References are to this bibliography.
1. A-bo-ba-dan ( 阿撥把丹 )
A port or polity situated on the southern littoral of the South Asian subcontinent. Mills (1970; 11, 20) suggests Puttanpur. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 474).
2. Aden ( 阿丹 )
Aden, situated on the coast of the Arabian peninsula in the modern state of Yemen. See Mills (1970; pp. 154-59). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 468-69, 897).
3. Annam ( 安南 )
The polity of Đại Việt, located in what is today the northern part of Vietnam. For a wide-ranging study of the MSL references to Annam, see Yamamoto (1950) and the chapters by Yamamoto, Fujiwara and Osawa in Yamamoto (1975). For other useful accounts, see Lo Jung-pang (1970), Le Thanh Khoi (1955), Momoki (1992), Woodside (1963) and Whitmore (1968 and 1985). MSL accounts of the successive rulers of Annam can be compared against the listing provided by Bui Quang Tung (1963). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 369-73).
4. Aru ( 阿魯 )
A polity located on the east coast of Sumatra. Also known as Haru. Mills (1970: 114-15, 184) notes it as being located in the Deli district. For a study of diverse references to Aru, see Milner, McKinnon and Luckman (1978). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 317-18, 902).
5. Ava-Burma ( 緬甸 )
I have adopted this term following Ray Huang's usage in Goodrich and Fang (1976; Vol. 2; 1208). It is used to translate the Chinese name “Mian-dian” (緬甸), by which the Ming administrators and scholars referred to a variety of polities based at different times at Ava, Toungoo, Pegu and Rangoon. The name remains today the Chinese name for Burma/Myanmar. Gu Yan-wu in his Tian-xia Jun-guo Li-bing-shu noted Ava-Burma's territory extending "east to the Ba-bai Pacification Superintendency, south to the ocean, west to the territory of Meng-yang, and north to the territory of the Meng-mi Pacification Commission" (Gong Yin 1985; 207).
The MSL references can be compared against accounts contained in Coedes (1966; 181-92), Elias (1876), Lieberman (1980, 1984, 1986), Pe Maung Tin and Luce (1960), Phayre (1967; 63-139), Scott and Hardiman (1900), Than Tun (1983-90), Tin Hla Thaw (1959) and Than Tun (1959). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 750-52, 921), Dao Yong-ming (1989; 381-413), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1001-02) and Gong Yin (1985; 205-07 and 1992; 625-27). It might be useful for readers to note that in the 16th-century MSL references, "Mang Rui-ti" appears to be the name used for Tabinshweti.
6. Ba-bai/Da-dian ( 八百大甸 ) or Ba-bai ( 八百 )
Noted in the MSL as a “pacification Superintendency” (宣慰司) subordinate to Yun-nan. It is noted decreasingly frequently over the 16th and 17th centuries. Apparently there were initially two polities -- Ba-bai and Da-dian -- but during the course of the Ming dynasty, they were integrated. By seemingly universal consensus, Ba-bai and Ba-bai/Da-dian refer to the Tai polity/ies of Lanna. The Ming Shi records the territory of Ba-bai extending "east to Che-li, south to Bo-le, west to Da Gu-la, bordering Ava-Burma, and north to Meng-gen" (Gong Yin 1985; 203). MSL references can be compared with accounts of Lanna contained in Hoshino (1986), Jayawickrama (1978), Mangrai (1981), Notton (1932) and Prasoet and Wyatt (1966). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 118, 978), Dao Yong-ming (1989; 418-27), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1019-1022), and Gong Yin (1985; 202-203 and 1992; 418-27).
7. Ba-jia-ta ( 八家塔 )
The MSL refers to Ba-jia-ta as a polity subordinate to Da Gu-la. Given the likelihood that Da Gu-la indicates the Ahom (or other Assam) polity, there seems little doubt that Ba-jia-ta is the Chinese name for Bakata, which became the Ahom capital, located in today's Assam. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 117) and Gong Yin (1985; 237-38 and 1992; 657).
8. Ba-zhai ( 八寨 )
Literally "Eight Stockades", this was evidently a Zhuang polity, lying to the west of what is today Ma-guan County in Yun-nan, PRC. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 906, 920) and Gong Yin (1985; 258-59).
9. Bai-ge-da ( 白葛達 )
This is the term the Chinese of the Ming dynasty used to represent Baghdad. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 116-17, 292-93, 904-05).
10. Bai-hua ( 百花 )
A maritime polity in Southeast Asia. The ruler of this polity who sent an envoy to China in the 1390s was recorded in the MSL as La-ding La-zhe-wang-sha (possibly Raden Rajawangsa), while his envoy bore the title "Patih" (八智). Such evidence suggests a Malay or Javanese polity. Following Hirth and Rockhill (1911; 83, 86), Mills (1970; 270) identified the polity with Pajajaran in western Java. It must be stated however that this identification is far from confirmed, and an equally likely candidate is Paka on the Terengganu coast. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 313-14).
11. Bengal ( 邦哈剌 )
This was the Indian polity of Bangala (Bengal). For a detailed study of Bengal-China links, see Ray (1993). For Ma Huan's account, see Mills (1970; 159-65). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 353, 828-29, 913-14).
12. Bi-la ( 比剌 )
A polity recorded in the MSL in connection with the eunuch-led voyages to the Indian Ocean in the early 15th century. Mills (1970; 212) identifies it as an island in the Maldives or the Laccadives. Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 176-77) note the suggestion that it may be the island of Abd Al-Kuli off Africa. There is no firm evidence supporting either identification.
13. Bo-le ( 波勒 )
Most likely the Tai polity of Phrae. The Du-shi fang-yu ji-yao by Gu Zu-yu notes of the polity of Che-li (q.v.), that "to the south it extends to the territory of the Bo-le man (barbarians)" (Gong Yin 1985; 181). Sun Lai-chen (1990) suggests that Bo-le was the Sukothai kingdom. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 543-44 and 1021) and Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1021).
14. Bo-ni ( 浡泥 )
Bo-ni is traditionally identified with the polity of Brunei. However, while the Brunei historical traditions certainly contain references to links with China (see, for instance Low 1880), there has been no uncontestable evidence presented which demonstrates that the "Bo-ni" in the MSL refers to the polity of Brunei. The main link, between the Brunei historiographical accounts and the MSL references is the probable equivalance of the Bo-ni ruler “Xia-wang” (= Awang) noted in MSL references from 1408-26 with Awang Alak ber Tabar who, according to a Brunei account, ruled Brunei prior to the introduction of Islam (Low 1880; 6). The two accounts fit together well phonetically and chronologically. See also D.E. Brown (1970) and Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970). For information on further Chinese sources relating to Bo-ni, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 574-75, 919-20).
15. Bu-la-wa ( 不剌哇 )
A polity recorded in the MSL in connection with the eunuch-led voyages to the Indian Ocean in the early 15th century. Mills (1970; 215) identifies it with Brava, a town located a little over 1 degree north of the Equator on the east coast of Africa in today's Somalia. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 109).
16. Calicut ( 古里 )
A polity on the west coast of the South Asian subcontinent. For Ma Huan's account of Calicut, see Mills (1970; 137-46). Ptak (1989) provides a wide-ranging survey of references to Calicut during the early Ming period. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 244).
17. Cambodia ( 真臘 )
This name is used to translate the Chinese term for the Khmer polity Zhen-la. References to this polity extend only up to the beginning of the 16th century. However, in 1580 there appears a single reference to Jian-bu-zhai (柬埔寨), the modern Chinese name for Cambodia (Shen-zong shi-lu, juan 103). Wolters (1966) has made a study of the Chinese sources on Cambodia during this period. The MSL references can also be compared with those contained in Briggs (1951), Coedes (1966; 193-203), Hoshino (1986), Reid and Marr (1979; 401-03), Tibbetts (1979; 156-57), Vickery (1977 and 1979) and Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen Xian-si et al. (1985), Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 570, 639-40), and Lu and Zhou (1986).
18. Cha-shan ( 茶山 )
Literally "Tea-hills", this could be a Chinese name or a phonetic representation of an indigenous name. Gong Yin (1985; 233) suggests that Cha-shan was a Jinghpo polity and, on the basis of the Yong-chang-fu Wen-zheng (永昌府文政徵), notes that its territory extended from the Nmai River in today's Kachin state, Burma, east to the modern Lu-shui County in Yun-nan, PRC. The MSL (Tai-zong 55.3a-b) notes that Cha-shan was located near Da Gu-la. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 850, 856, 1063-64) and Gong Yin (1985; 233-34 and 1992; 653).
19. Champa ( 占城 )
This term is used to translate the Chinese Zhan-cheng, which is literally "the city of the Zhan (=Cham)". This is the term used by the Chinese to refer to the Cham polity/ies located in what is today central and southern Vietnam. A major study incorporating Chinese sources has been done by Maspero (1928). For other studies against which the MSL references can be compared, see Majumdar (1927) and Momoki (1992), and the diverse works noted in Lafont and Po Dharma (1989). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 277-79).
20. Che-li ( 車里 )
A Tai polity depicted in the MSL as a “pacification superintendency” (宣慰司) of Yun-nan. The Chinese term Che-li was used to represent a Tai Lüe polity known by diverse names including Muong Le, Kenghung, Chienrung, Jengrung and “the city of dawn". This was the central polity in the "Sipsong Panna" (or "Twelve Panna"). The origin of the term Che-li has been the subject of much study and diverse explanations, but no consensus has been reached. However, it appears that the “Che” element means "city" as it does in Tai Ahom. For Ahom examples, see Buragohain (1987). This is probably the same Tai term represented in the initial element in a range of other Yun-nan place names, including Zhe-fang (遮放), Zhe-an (遮安), Jie-mao (姐冒) and Zhi-na (支那). See Wu Guang-fan (1993; 30-31, 39-41).
On the extent of Che-li's territory, the Du-shi fang-yu ji-yao notes: “To the east it extends to the territory of the Luo-kong man, to the south it extends to the Ba-bai/Da-dian Pacification Superintendency, while to the north-west it reaches to the Yuan-jiang Military and Civilian Prefecture” (Gong Yin (1985;181). This shows that its territory extended south to what is now northern Thailand and to the north extended close to the Red River. It was a far larger polity than depicted by Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 77) and would have included much of what is today northern Laos. There is a range of Tai texts against which the MSL references can be compared. Some have, however, been recently compiled in China to depict Che-li as long an integral part of the Chinese state. A Tai history of Muong Le has been translated into Chinese by Li Fu-yi (1946). See also Dao, Dao and Kang (1989) and Li Fu-yi (1983 and 1984). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 284-310, 967-69), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 779, 884, 898-901, 1074) and Gong Yin (1985; 179-81 and 1992; 598-601). For secondary literature on the Tai Lue, see Tanabe (1991; 57-66).
21. Cochin ( 柯枝 )
This is used to render the Chinese term Ke-zhi, which refers to the polity of Cochin on the west coast of India. See Mills (1970; 132-37) for Ma Huan's account of Cochin, as well as Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 570, 929).
22. Cu-wa ( 促瓦 )
A "Yun-nan" polity noted in the MSL as being subject to Lu-chuan. Its precise location and extent have not yet been ascertained. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1063-64) and Gong Yin (1985; 235 and 1992; 654).
23. Da-dian ( 大甸 )
See Ba-bai/Da-dian entry (no. 6) above. For reference to Da-dian alone, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 913-15).
24. Da Gu-la ( 大古剌 ) and Xiao Gu-la ( 小古剌 )
These are both noted in the MSL as administrations under "Yun-nan", with Da Gu-la (Lit: Greater Gu-la) being obviously the stronger. In the seventh chapter on “Geography” in the Ming Shi, it is noted that Da Gu-la was Pegu. This identification has been followed by most modern scholars, including Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 139). Chen Ru-xing (1992) also considers Da Gu-la to have been Pegu, as evidenced by the “Takkola" of the early European maps, but believes that Xiao Gu-la was the "Gaur" of Assam. I would suggest that the identification of Da Gu-la with Pegu is entirely erroneous and that Da Gu-la and Xiao Gu-la were the polities of the Ahom, located in the Brahmaputra Valley in today's Assam. The fact that, in 1408, Da Gu-la attacked Meng-lun (in today's Northern Burma), Di-ban (Tipam) and Ba-jia-ta (Bakata) and carried off their people (Tai-zong shi-lu, juan 82.1a-b), suggests that this was an Ahom polity rather than any polity centered on Pegu. The text quoted under Ba-bai/Da-dian above, which noted that Da Gu-la lay to the west of Lanna, also supports this proposition. It may even be the case that Da Gu-la and Xiao Gu-la were the pre-Ahom polities, as the name of the Da Gu-la ruler recorded in the MSL -- Po-di-na-lang-- suggests "....narayan", a very common epithet among the Koch and Kachari rulers. Da Gu-la and Xiao Gu-la (Lesser Gu-la) seem to have derived their names from the banks of the Brahmaputra they occupied. In a study of pre-Ahom Assam, Lahiri (1991; 133, 138, 144, 147) notes how from the 9th century until at least the 11th century, the northern administrative division was termed "Uttara-kula" (northern bank), while the southern administrative division was named "Dakshina-kula" (southern bank). I feel that it is in these terms that we should seek the origin of the Chinese names Da Gu-la and Xiao Gu-la. Regardless of whether these were Ahom or pre-Ahom polities, the obvious links between the Ahom and the Möng Mao polity of Lu-chuan need to be studied far more deeply. The marked similarity of the list of Ahom rulers with those of the Tai Mao cannot be coincidental. For some relevant literature see Lahiri (1991), Phukan (1990) and Tanabe (1991; 28-34). For information on further Chinese sources relating to these polities, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 139-40), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1010-14) and Gong Yin (1985; 207 and 1992; 627).
25. Da-hou ( 大侯 )
This was a Yun-nan Chief's Office and subsequently “native subprefecture” (土州), ruled by a Tai elite (as evidenced by the "Dao" honorific they bore). It was centred on what is today Yun-xian in Yun-nan, PRC. The site of the old city is said to lie to the south of the modern city of Yun-xian (Gong Yin 1982; 133). See also the map provided in Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 76). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1069), and Gong Yin (1985; 132-133 and 1992; 553-55).
25a. Da Xi-yang ( 大西洋 )
Literally “Great Western Ocean”, this was a term used by the Ming compilers to refer to an undefined distant polity and as a general term for "Westerners" such as Li Ma-dou (Matteo Ricci). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 440-41).
26. Dan-ba ( 淡巴 )
An unidentified polity in maritime Southeast Asia which appears in only one MSL reference. Mills (1970; 221) tentatively suggests that the name refers to the Patani area, but he cites no evidence. Others suggest, on the basis of phonetic similarity, Lake Dampar in Malaysia (Chen, Xie and Lu 1986; 725). The Hokkien reading of the characters (dam-ba) strongly suggests the polity of Demak on the northern coast of Java.
27. Di-ban ( 底板 )
Very likely Mong Tipam, a polity subordinate to the Ahom in modern Assam or Bangladesh. Wichasin (1987; 155) notes Tipam as part of the Ahom realm and records "Chao Tipam" as a title held by the son of the Ahom chaofa. See also Buragohain (1989). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Gong Yin (1985; 237-38 and 1992; 657).
28. Di-ma-sa ( 底馬撒 )
The identity of this polity has been the subject of much debate. Gurdon (1913) and Cochrane (1914) suggested, on the basis of the verification tally illustrated in 3.2.1 above, that Timasa was Chiangmai. Gerini (1913) associated "Timasa" with the Hill Kachari who were known by the Ahom as Timasa. Gong Yin (1988; 208) suggested that this was a Mon polity, but provided no textual reference. Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1012), presumably on phonetic grounds and the (erroneous) identification of Da Gu-la with Pegu, felt that it represented "Tenaseri" (= Tenasserim). Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 537-38) agreed with Fang Guo-yu. There appears little doubt that Gerini's proposition was correct. Wichasin (1987) notes that "Mung Timisa" lay in a "minority region" to the south of the Ahoms, with whom they shared a long border. "Mung Tumisa" is indicated on the map in Baruah (1985; facing p. 171), located between the Brahmaputra River and Manipur. For other literature, see Baruah (1985), Bhuyan (1951) and Chen Ru-xing (1992). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 537-38) and Gong Yin (1985; 208 and 1992; 627).
29. Di-wu-la ( 底兀剌 )
The MSL (Tai-zong shi-lu 269.3a-b), records that the territory of this polity was, in the early 15th century, occupied by Da Gu-la which suggests an area near Assam. There seems little doubt that it refers to Tripura, which lies south of the Brahmaputra and north of Bengal. See the map in Baruah (1985; facing p. 171). Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 537) record Toungoo as a suggested identification. The evidence does not support this. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 537), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1011-1014) and Gong Yin (1985; 208 and 1992; 628).
30. Die-li ( 碟里 )
This most likely refers to Deli on the Eastern coast of Sumatra. Mills (1970; 222), however, identifies it with the polity of Kediri in Java. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 935-36).
30a. Dong-tang ( 東倘 )
A polity noted in the MSL as being subordinate to Ava-Burma. It was recognized as a separate polity by the Ming state in 1433 (Xuan-zong shi-lu 106.7a-b). It possibly refers to the "Ton Twan:" noted by Than Tun (1983-90; Vol. X: 3). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Gong Yin (1985; 236 and 1992; 655).
31. Dong-wu ( 冬烏 )
A polity noted as being part of Yun-nan in the early Yong-le (1403-24) reign. The only two MSL references to this polity date to 1403 and 1404. This may well have been an early reference to Toungoo (q.v).
32. Fan-su-er ( 番速兒 )
The Fansur/Pansur or Barus area, renowned for its camphor, on the west coast of Sumatra. For Arabic sources on this polity, see Tibbetts (1979; 140-41). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 776).
33. Fu-lin ( 佛菻 )
Widely recognized as a generic reference to Byzantium, possibly referring to Constantinople. Hirth (1885; 289) however, reconstructs the name as "But-lim" or "But-lam", and identifies it with Syria. The MSL contains only two references to this polity, both in the 1370s. For Byzantium during this period, see Nicol (1993). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 484).
34. Gan-ba-li ( 甘巴里 )
A polity mentioned in connection with the eunuch-led voyages to the Indian Ocean in the early 15th century. Mills (1970; 198) identifies it with Coimbatore in Southern India. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 251).
35. Gan-yai ( 干崖 )
The MSL notes Gan-yai as a polity under Yun-nan, “established” in 1403 in territory formerly subject to Lu-chuan. The Ming Shi notes that it was previously known as Gan-lai Tan ( 干賴賧 ) (Gong Yin 1985; 212). The titles borne by its rulers during the Ming suggest that they were Tai. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) locates Gan-yai as lying at the confluence of the Da-ying River and the Bin-lang River in the western part of today's Yun-nan, PRC, with its territory being bounded on the north by Nan Dian (q.v.) and on the south by Long-chuan (q.v.). Possibly identical with Meung-la. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 242-46), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 851, 865, 1065-66) and Gong Yin (1985; 210-12, 220, 239-40 and 1992; 630-31, 639, 658-59).
35a. Geng-ma ( 耿馬 )
Noted in the MSL from the 16th century as a polity under Yun-nan, Geng-ma was evidently ruled by a Tai nobility. It was centred on what is today Lan-cang Dai and Wa Nationality Autonomous County in Yun-nan, PRC. Alternate names include Keng-ma and Kaing-ma. For further details, see Mangrai (1981a). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 269-70, 947), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 852, 875, 1071) and Gong Yin (1985; 128-129, 229-30 and 1992; 550-51).
36. Gong-zhang ( 貢掌/貢章 )
A regional centre situated at or near Katha on the Irrawaddy. For further details, see Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol. 1, 320-337).
37. Gu-la ( 古剌 )
A minor polity which the MSL situates in Yun-nan, subordinate to Gan-yai. This must not be confused with Da Gu-la or Xiao Gu-la, which were located much further to the west, but may derive from the same term “kula”. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1066).
38. Gu-ma-la-lang ( 古麻剌郎 )
The polity of Kumalarang, "in the province of Zamboanga de Sur near the modern Pagadian" (Scott 1984; 77). See also Scott (1984; 61, 78, 137) and Scott (1989; 7). Mills (1970; 200) suggests that the name represents Carrabuyan island, an identification not widely accepted. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 249) and Zhong-shan University, Southeast Asian Historical Research Institute (1980; 21, 27-29, 66, 67, 72).
39. Guang-nan ( 廣南 )
A "native" prefectural division in Yun-nan, apparently based on a Zhuang polity centred on what is today Guang-nan County in Yun-nan, PRC. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 77) depicts it as bordering the Dai Viet polity. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 778, 907, 921-23, 1041-42) and Gong Yin (1985; 124-25).
40. Guang-xi ( 廣西 )
A "native" prefectural division in Yun-nan. Gong Yin (1985; 294) notes it as a Yi (Lo-lo) polity. For location, see Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 77). It should not be confused with the Chinese province of the same name. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1042) and Gong Yin (1985; 294-95) and 1992; 711-16).
41. Guang-yi ( 廣邑 )
A "native" subprefecture in Yun-nan. The MSL references to this polity extend only over the first half of the 15th century. It was located close to Shun-ning (q.v.) and its territory apparently included that which today comes under Chang-ning County in Yun-nan. See Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 76). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 852, 878) and Gong Yin (1992; 552-53).
41a. Holland ( 荷蘭 or 阿籣 )
The Netherlands polity is represented in the MSL by the names "He-lan" or "A-lan". The Dutch are also referred to as “red yi” ( 紅夷) or “red-haired fan” (紅毛番), who were known to be based at Yao-liu-ba (Jiao-liu-ba), which is how the Chinese referred to (Sunda) Kelapa, which became Batavia. For further relevant literature, see Blussé (1973), Wills (1974), Groeneveldt (1898) and Zhang Wei-hua (1982; 85-124).
42. Hormuz (忽魯莫斯)
Phonetically "Hu-lu-mo-si", this name is universally accepted to represent Hormuz, a polity based on an island lying near the entrance to the Persian Gulf. See Mills (1970; 165-73, 197). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986: 521, 949).
43. Java ( 爪哇 )
Phonetically "Zhao-wa", this name is universally accepted to represent the island of Java in the modern Indonesia. For Ma Huan's account of Java, see Mills (1970; 86-98). The MSL references can be compared with accounts contained in Aoyama (1998), Pigeaud and De Graaf (1976), Schrieke (1955) and Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970) and the texts noted in Reid and Marr (1979; 403-05). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986: 203-04, 955-56).
44. Jia-li ( 戛里 or 戛璃 )
Noted in the MSL as a polity in Yun-nan. It was, in the early 15th century, an ally of Ava-Burma (q.v). Jia-li's feuding with Meng-yang (q.v.) resulted in Ava-Burma attacking Meng-yang in 1407 (Tai-zong shi-lu, juan 66.1a). This appears to represent Kale in today's northern Burma. See also Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol. 1, 278-86).
45. Jia-yi-le ( 加異勒 )
The polity of Cael/Kayal, located at the delta of the Tambraparni River on the west coast of India. See Mills (1970; 188). Many of the Chinese and other sources referring to this polity are examined in Ptak (1993a). A listing of Chinese sources relating to this polity can be found in Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 306).
46. Jiao-hua San-bu ( 教化三部 )
A generic name used in the MSL to refer to three Zhuang polities which lay to the west of what is today Wen-shan on the Ming River in Yun-nan, PRC. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Gong Yin (1985; 255-56 and 1992; 673-74,919-920, 1041).
47. Jin-chi ( 金齒 )
Literally: "Gold teeth". A term used for an area of “Yun-nan” from the Tang dynasty. It was captured by Ming forces prior to April 1382. The MSL notes it as a major polity/administrative centre. The Chinese established Teng-chong (q.v.) Battalion at Jin-chi. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this region, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 126-139) and Gong Yin (1985; 195 and 1992; 615).
48. Jin-mao-li ( 金貓里 )
Noted in the MSL as a polity whose envoy came to the Ming court together with the Javanese envoy in 1405 (Tai-zong shi-lu, juan 46.3b). No firm identification has been established for this polity. In Cantonese, the characters of the polity name are pronounced "Gum-mao-lei". This suggests that it might refer to Komoring in southern Sumatra. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 526).
49. Jing-dong ( 景東 )
A polity ruled by a Tai elite in Yun-nan, centred on what is today still Jing-dong County in Yun-nan, PRC. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 79) shows the territory of Jing-dong extending south to Wei-yuan (q.v.) and bordering Da-hou (q.v.) and Meng-mian (q.v.) to the west. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 99-103, 936-38), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 779, 884-85, 1068-69) and Gong Yin (1985; 272-74 and 1992; 690-93).
50. Kelantan ( 急蘭丹 )
Phonetically "Ji-lan-dan", this term is universally accepted as representing Kelantan, located in the modern state of the same name on the east coast of peninsular Malaysia. See Mills (1970; 187). The MSL references can be compared with the texts listed in Reid and Marr (1979; 406-13). See also Wyatt (1994; 22-48). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 322-23, 602, 967).
51. La-ni ( 剌泥 )
A maritime polity recorded in connection with the eunuch-led voyages to the Indian Ocean at the beginning of the 15th century. Mills (1970; 202) identifies it with Lar, Central Gujerat in western India. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 573).
52. La-sa ( 剌撒 )
A maritime polity recorded in connection with the eunuch-led voyages to the Indian Ocean at the beginning of the 15th century. Duyvendak (1953) identifies it with Muscat. Mills (1970; 347-48) suggests some place on the southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, probably near Mukalla. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 573).
53. Lan-bang ( 覽邦 )
There is a fairly firm consensus among scholars that this represents the polity of Lampung in southern Sumatra. See, for example, Mills (1970; 202). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 589-90, 756).
54. Laos ( 老<挝> ) (Phonetically: “Lao-wo”)
A polity with a Tai elite, Laos is noted in the MSL as being one of the six “pacification superintendencies” of Yun-nan. It was the predecessor of the modern state of Laos. The Ming Shi notes the territory of Laos extending "east to Shui-wei (水尾), south to Jiao-zhi, west to Ba-bai, north to Che-li. Sixty eight [day] stages to the north-west lies the Yun-nan Provincial Administration Commission [Kun-ming]" (Gong Yin 1985; 205). The MSL references can be compared and contrasted with literature including Coedes (1966, 1968), Evans (2003), Hoshino (1986), Le Boulanger (1931), Mangrai (1981a), Stuart-Fox (1998) and Viravong (1964). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 312-13, 978-80), Dao Yong-ming (1989; 429-37), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1026-28) and Gong Yin (1985; 203-05 and 1992; 623-24). Jing Zhen-guo (1985) collects together most of the known classical Chinese references to Laos.
55. Li-ma ( 里麻 )
A Yun-nan polity, apparently ruled by a Tai elite. The Yun-nan provincial gazetteer of the 19th century notes that Li-ma’s population comprised A-chang people. The Tian-xia Jun-guo Li-bing-shu records it as being located to the west of Cha-shan (q.v.), beyond the Jin-sha River (Irrawaddy) (Gong Yin 1985; 235). This situates it in Upper Kachin state of modern Burma/Myanmar. See also Gerini (1913). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 424), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 993-94, 1064) and Gong Yin (1985; 234-35 and 1992; 653-54).
55a. Lin-an ( 臨安 )
An administrative division of Yun-nan, centred on what is today Jian-shui, and including the Red River valley. For “native offices” in Lin-an, see Gong Yin (1985; 71-97). Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) depicts its territory extending into what is today northern Vietnam. See also Fang Guo-yu (1987; 778, 905, 907-10) and Gong Yin (1992; 496-522).
56. Liu-shan ( 溜山 )
A generic term for the Indian Ocean islands of the Maldives and the Laccadives. See Mills (1970; 146-51, 203). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 816, 992). For a study of the Chinese sources on Liu-shan, see Ptak (1987).
57. Long-chuan ( 隴川 )
One of the polities established in the former territory of Lu-chuan (q.v.), following the destruction of the latter by the Ming state in the 1440s. It is depicted in Chinese texts as a successor to the Lu-chuan polity and was ruled by a Tai Mao elite. The ruling seat was located about 15 kilometres from the present seat of Long-chuan County in Yun-nan, PRC. The MSL references can be compared with the accounts in Elias (1876; 51-60). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 225-236, 941), Fang Guo-yu (19877; 851, 870-71, 1065) and Gong Yin (1985; 214-16 and 1992; 634-35).
58. Lu-chuan/Ping-mian ( 麓川平緬 )
Initially a combination of two polity names, in the MSL references the "Ping-mian" element of the name was eventually dropped and the polity was known simply as "Lu-chuan". This Tai Mao polity was one of the major upland Southeast Asian polities of the 13th to 15th centuries. Ping-mian was probably "Pong". Phayre (1967; 12) notes "Pong" as a Manipuri term referring to a country on the Upper Irrawaddy, while Harvey (1925; 322) notes that "Pong" was the Mau Shan state of Mogaung. Lu-chuan was centred on what is today Rui-li County in Yun-nan, PRC and its territory extended over much of what is today western Yun-nan and the Shan states of Burma/Myanmar. The polity's power was gradually eroded and finally destroyed by a series of huge Chinese military expeditions in the mid-15th century. Elias (1876; 14-50) provides "The Story of Mung-mau" which is based on Tai sources and Pemberton (1835). The names of the polity rulers in the MSL can be equated with those in the Tai sources as follows: Si Ren-fa = Tho-ngan-bwa; Si Lun = Tsa-lun ; Si Han-fa = Tho-han-bwa; while Si Ji-fa may be equivalent to Chau Si-pha. The genealogies of the Tai Mao rulers might be profitably compared with those of the Ahom listed in Baruah (1985; 661). For other literature, see Briggs (1949; 66-68), Jiang Ying-liang (1980), Liew Foon-ming (1993) and the entries under Tai Nua (Tai Mao and Chinese Shan) and Shan (Tai Ya) in Tanabe (1991; 44-53). See Song, Dao and Xue (1990) for a Sinicized account of Mong Mao in both Chinese and Tai. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 141-235), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 797-98, 859-64, 867-70, 1065) and Gong Yin (1985; 196-198 and 1992; 615-618).
59. Lu-jiang ( 潞江 )
A polity under Yun-nan ruled by a Tai elite. Located between Bao-shan and Teng-chong (q.v.). Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) shows Lu-jiang as being centred on a place located to the west of the Salween, about 25 kilometres north of the Hui-tong Bridge where the Burma Road now crosses the Salween. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 140, 945), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 851, 864-65, 1068) and Gong Yin (1985; 224-26 and 1992; 643-45, 668).
60. Luo-bu-si Zhuang ( 羅卜思莊 )
A minor but apparently strategically-important place en route from Yun-nan into Ava-Burma. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) locates it in Nan Dian (q.v.) about 24 degrees 40 minutes north of the Equator. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 869, 1066) and Gong Yin (1992; 666).
61. Luzon ( 呂宋 )
Phonetically "Lu-song", this term was used by Ming China to refer to a polity on the island of Luzon in the modern Philippines. The MSL references to Luzon in the early 15th century are to a probably indigenous polity, while the 16th and 17th century references are obviously to the Spanish colonial administration. For other relevant literature, see Blair and Robertson (1903-09), Scott (1984 and 1989) and Zhang Wei-hua (1982; 57-84). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 343-44, 985). The various Chinese texts on Philippine polities are collected in Zhong-shan University, Southeast Asian Historical Research Institute (1980).
62. Ma-lin ( 馬林 )
A polity noted in connection with the eunuch-led maritime voyages into the Indian Ocean in the early 15th century. Mills (1970, 205) follows Pelliot (1933; 298) in identifying this with Malindi, a town on the east coast of Africa, a little more than 3 degrees south of the Equator, in today's Kenya. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 739, 743).
63. Ma-long-ta-lang Dian ( 馬龍他郎甸 )
This was a polity which appears in the MSL only from the 1380s until the 1420s. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 23-24) maps it only for the Yuan dynasty and shows it as being located in what was subsequently the Ming polity of Yuan-jiang (q.v.). Gong Yin (1985; 317) notes it as a Yi (Lo-lo) polity. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Gong Yin (1985; 317 and 1992; 733-34) and Fang Guo-yu (1987; 884, 890, 891, 1073).
64. Ma-ye-weng ( 麻葉甕 )
A Southeast Asian maritime polity which is recorded in only one 1405 MSL reference. Mills (1986; 741, 745, 916) suggests that it is the same as Ma-li-dong and considers it to be Billiton. Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 741, 745, 916) identify it with Ma-ye-dong (麻葉凍) and Ma-yi-dong (麻逸凍) and concur that it refers to Billiton.
64a. Man-mo ( 蠻莫 )
This is the polity of Bhamo which comes to prominence in the MSL record only from the late 16th century. Ruled by a Tai elite, the polity was centred on a place at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and the Da-ying Rivers, near the modern city of Bhamo. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 76) locates the16th century Man-mo about 50 kilometres to the east of modern Bhamo. For Tai accounts, see Elias (1876; 75-78) and Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol. 1, 46-72). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 376-380), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 997-98) and Gong Yin (1985; 228-229 and 1992; 648).
65. Mang-shi ( 芒市 )
A Yun-nan polity. Attacked by Lu-chuan (q.v.) in the 1440s and was an ally of Mu-bang (q.v.) in the mid-15th century. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) depicts it as being centred on what is today Lu-xi (or Mang-shi) in Yun-nan, PRC. In Shan, it was known as Mong Si (Scott and Hardiman 1900; Part II, Vol. 2, 477). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 247-49, 944), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 851, 871-72, 1067) and Gong Yin (1985; 226-27, 233 and 1992; 645-47, 652).
66. Mecca ( 天方 )
Literally "Heavenly Square", which referred to the ka'ba in Mecca, located in what is today Saudi Arabia. For Ma Huan's account of Mecca, see Mills (1970; 173-78).
For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 186, 187, 998).
67. Melaka ( 满剌加 )
Phonetically "Man-la-jia", this name refers to the sultanate of Melaka/Malacca centered on what is now the city of Melaka on the south-west coast of peninsular Malaysia. For Ma Huan's account of the city in the early 15th century see Mills (1970; 108-114). For further relevant literature, see C.C. Brown (1952), Chan Hok-lam (1991), Muhammed Yusoff Hashim (1992), Wang Gungwu (1964, 1968, 1968a, 1970), Reid and Marr (1979; 406-413) and Wyatt (1994; 82-89). For information on further Chineses sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 741, 818, 990).
68. Meng-ding ( 孟定 )
A Yun-nan polity ruled by a Tai elite, noted as originally being subordinate to the Lu-chuan (q.v.) polity. In Tai texts it is known as Mong-ting. The "Yun-nan Tu-si" section of Ming Shi notes of its territory: "To the west it borders Long-chuan, to the east it borders Meng-lian, to the south it borders Mu-bang and to the north it borders Zhen-kang" (Gong Yin 1985; 218). Tan Qi-xiang (1985; 78) depicts it as comprising territory which is today under Lan-cang Wa Nationality Autonomous County and Geng-ma Dai and Wa Nationality Autonomous County in Yun-nan, PRC. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 271-77, 948), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 852, 873-74, 1070-71) and Gong Yin (1985; 217-18 and 1992; 636-38).
69. Meng-gao ( 孟誥 )
A minor Yun-nan polity ruled by a Tai elite. It is not recorded as a Chinese administrative division. The MSL references to this polity are only seen for the years 1407 to 1412, after which it was presumably absorbed by another polity. Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol. 2, 375-76) note a Mong Kao in the Northern Shan States. This may have been Meng-gao's location.
70. Meng-gen ( 孟艮 )
A polity depicted in the MSL as a "prefecture" of Yun-nan. The Tai traditions know this polity as Jengtung or Kengtung, a polity centred on the city of the same name in Shan State in modern Burma/Myanmar. Gu Zu-yu's Du-shi Fang-yu Ji-yao notes Meng-gen's territory extending "east to the territory of the Che-li Pacification Superintendency, south to the territory of Ba-bai/Da-dian, west to Mu-bang and north to the territory of the Meng-lian Chief's Office" (Gong Yin 1985; 219). Mangrai (1981a) provides two very useful translations of indigenous Jengtung histories against which the MSL references to Meng-gen can be compared and contrasted. The Meng-gen rulers given in the MSL can be equated with the following rulers given in Mangrai: Dao Ai = Ay-on = Ayyakababhumraja; Dao Jiao = Braya Kaeumabhu; and Qing-ma-la = Culamani. For further relevant literature, see Phayre (1967) and Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol. 1, 371-450). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 414-17), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 1017-18) and Gong Yin (1985; 218-19 and 1992; 638).
71. Meng-hua ( 蒙化 )
A “native” administration in Yun-nan, located south of Da-li and north of Shun-ning. See Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) for location. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 821, 1050-51).
72. Meng-leng ( 孟楞 )
A minor muang which is seen in the MSL record only from 1447 to 1455. In the last reference of 1455 it is noted as a “stockade” (寨). It can possibly be equated with the Mong Leng/ Mong Lang (Mo-hliang) recorded in Scott and Hardiman (1900; 342-34, 413).
73. Meng-lian ( 孟璉 )
Recorded as a "Chief's Office" under Yun-nan, Meng-lian was ruled by a Tai elite. In Shan it is known as Mong Lem and in Burmese Meung-lem. In some sources the name is given as Monglaem. According to Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 76-77), it was centred on what is today the county seat of the Meng-lian Dai-Lahu-Wa Autonomous County in Yun-nan, PRC, controlling territory which extended into what is today Shan State in Burma/Myanmar. A Sinicized historical account of Meng-lian is provided in Chinese and Tai in Dao Pai-han (1986). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 278-83, 948-49), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 852, 880, 1071) and Gong Yin (1985; 129-30 and 1992; 551-52).
74. Meng-lun ( 孟倫 )
The MSL notes that this entity was located close to Da Gu-la (q.v.) and was occupied by the latter in 1408. It appears that this was a Tai muang brought to submission by the Ahom. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 76) notes a Meng-lun as being located at the modern Mohnyin, while Fang Guo-yu (1987; 992) suggests that Meng-lun was Mawlu in Burma/Myanmar. See also Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol. 2, 234-35). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 992-93) and Gong Yin (1985; 237-38 and 1992; 657).
74a. Meng-mao ( 猛卯 )
The Tai Mao polity. One of the successors to Lu-chuan which appears in the MSL record only in the 16th century. References to Meng-mao should be read in the light of the secondary literature cited under Lu-chuan and Meng-yang. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 851, 870-71, 1067) and Gong Yin (1985; 227 and 1992; 647).
75. Meng-mi ( 孟密 )
The MSL notes Meng-mi as a "Pacification Commission" of Yun-nan, established as a separate administration as a result of a dispute with Mu-bang (q.v.). It is the polity known in Tai and Burmese sources as Mongmit or Momiet, and is occasionally referred to as Mo-miek. The Du-shi Fang-yu Ji-yao notes that its territory extended “east to Mu-bang Pacification Superintendency, west to the territory of the Ava-Burma Pacification Superintendency and north to the territory of the Man-mo Pacification Office” (Gu Zu-yu; juan 119). It was centred on what is today still known as Möng Mit on a tributary of the Shweli River in Shan State, Burma/Myanmar. For some relevant literature, see Elias (1876; 65-70), Mangrai (1981a), Phayre (1967) and Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol.2, 416-17). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 363-75), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 996) and Gong Yin (1985; 216-17 and 1992; 635-36).
76. Meng-mian ( 孟緬 or 猛緬 )
A probably Tai polity noted in the MSL as a "Chief's Office" in Yun-nan, established in territory formerly under Jing-dong (q.v.). According to Gong Yin (1985; 132) and Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 76), Meng-mian was centred on today's Lan-cang in Yun-nan, PRC. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 852, 879-80, 1069-70) and Gong Yin (1985; 131-32 and 1992; 553).
77. Meng-mu ( 孟木 )
A minor, presumably Tai, polity in Yun-nan. The MSL references to Meng-mu extend only from 1464 to 1483. The location and extent of this polity have not yet been ascertained.
77a. Meng-nai ( 孟乃 )
A polity which the MSL notes was situated in Yun-nan, but which only appears in the references of the 16th century. This is the polity known in Shan as Mong Nai. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 76) illustrates it as being located on the southern bank of the Shweli River just south of the Tropic of Cancer. Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol. 2, 417-32) state that its power extended east as far as the Salween.
78. Meng-wai ( 孟外 )
A minor muang, references to which only appear in the MSL over the period 1407 to 1413. In 1407 it was noted as being under Lu-chuan/Ping-mian (q.v.) (Tai-zong 65.5b). Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol. 2, 494) note a Mong Wai as a Kachin Village in Bhamo District.
79. Meng-yang ( 孟養 )
A polity which the MSL records as a "prefecture" and later as a “pacification Superintendency” under Yun-nan. It is the polity known in Shan as Möng Yang or Möng Kawng and in Burmese as Mo-hnyin or Mogaung. The MSL notes that it was established on territory originally under Lu-chuan (Ying-zong shi-lu, juan 24.2b-3a), and it was to here that the remnants of the Möng Mao ruling family fled after the destruction of Lu-chuan (q.v.). The Du-shi Fang-yu Ji-yao notes its territory extending "east to the Jin-sha River [Irrawaddy], south to the territory of the Ava-Burma Pacification Superintendency, west to the territory of the Da Gu-la Pacification Superintendency and north to the territory of the Gan-yai Pacification Commission" (Gong Yin 1985; 202). For Tai and Burmese accounts, see Scott and Hardiman (1900; 332-338, 345-49), Mangrai (1981) and Phayre (1967). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 338-62, 235-36), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 990-92) and Gong Yin (1985; 200-02 and 1992; 620-22).
80. Meng Zhang-lang ( 孟掌浪 )
The MSL refers to this polity only in 1407 (Tai-zong shi-lu, juan 68.7a-b), stating that it was located in “Yun-nan” and had previously been subject to Ba-bai (Lanna) (q.v.). One possible identification is Muang Chaliang located in what is today northern Thailand.
81. Mi-nang-ge-bu ( 米囊葛卜 )
A maritime Southeast Asian polity referred to only once in the MSL, in 1405 (Tai-zong shi-lu, juan 47.1b). There seems little doubt that this represents the name Minangkabau, located in upland Sumatra in modern Indonesia. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 999-1000).
82. Mogadishu ( 木骨都束 )
Phonetically "Mu-gu-du-shu", this is widely recognized to represent Mogadishu on the African coast in today's Somalia. For the links between Ming China and African polities, see Shen Fu-wei (1990; 447-90). See also Mills (1970). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 194).
83. Mu-bang ( 木邦 )
The MSL depicts Mu-bang as a “pacification Superintendency” of Yun-nan. It is the Tai polity known in Southeast Asian sources as Hsenwi, Hsienwi or Theinni, centred on the modern Hsenwi in northern Burma/Myanmar. According to the Du-shi Fang-yu Ji-yao, its territory extended east to Lanna, and south to the territory of the "Su-la man" (速剌蠻), west to Ava-Burma, and north to Mang-shi. For Tai accounts, see "Theinni" in Elias (1876; 61-64) and Scott and Hardiman (1900; 181-203). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 317-37), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 994-95) and Gong Yin (1985; 199-200 and 1992; 618-20).
84. Nan-bo-li ( 喃渤利 )
A maritime polity noted in the MSL in connection with the eunuch-led voyages to the Indian Ocean in the early 15th century. Probably the polity of Lambri/Lamuri in or near Aceh in northern Sumatra. For related literature, see Gerini (1909; 657-706), McKinnon (1988), Mills (1970; 122-24), and Tibbetts (1979; 138-40). See also Nan-wu-li below. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 584, 977).
85. Nan Dian ( 南甸 )
Noted as a Yun-nan “subprefecture” in the MSL. The Tian-xia Jun-guo Li-bing Shu of Gu Yan-wu notes the territory of Nan Dian as extending "east to the territory of Mang-shi, south to the territory of Long-chuan, west to the territory of Meng-yang" (Gong Yin 1985; 210). Possibly also known as Ahsing and Maing-ti (Parker 1893; 1). Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 76) depicts the seat of Nan Dian as lying on the Da-ying River, and shows its territory extending west to the Irrawaddy. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 237-41, 942), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 851, 867, 1066) and Gong Yin (1985; 208-10, 219, 247-48 and 1992; 628-30, 639, 643).
86. Nan-wu-li ( 南巫里 )
Possibly the same (or part of the same) polity of Lambri/Lamuri noted under Nan-bo-li above, situated in or nearby Aceh, Sumatra. The MSL does distinguish Nan-bo-li and Nan-wu-li, but no scholar has successfully demonstrated that they constitute two distinct polities. For Lamri/Lamuri see Gerini (1909; 657-706) and Tibbetts (1979; 138-40). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 583, 977).
87. Nan-ying ( 南硬 )
A Yun-nan polity recorded in the MSL in only one entry, dated 1413 (Tai-zu 136.4a). Nothing else is known of it. Possibly the Naung Yin recorded by Scott and Hardiman (1900; Part II, Vol. 2, 638).
88. Ning-yuan ( 寧遠 )
A polity noted as a “subprefecture” of Yun-nan. The MSL references range from 1405 until the late 15th century, but China's claims to the area only extend up until the 1430s. This is the generic name for the Sipsong Chau Tay (Twelve Tai zhao), centred on what is today Lai Chau Province in north-west Vietnam. For relevant literature, see Gaspardone (1939 and 1971) and Hoshino (1986). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 311-16) and Fang Guo-yu (1987; 906, 916).
89. Niu-wu ( 鈕兀 )
A polity noted by the MSL in only one reference of 1433 as a "Chief's Office" in Yun-nan. It was created by merging stockades in the territory of Ha-ni people (Xuan-zong shi-lu, juan 106.7b), and was located between Che-li (q.v.) and Yuan-jing (q.v.). See Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 77) and Fang Guo-yu (1987; 884, 893, 1072).
90. Old Port ( 舊港 )
This was the name used in the early 15th century to refer to Palembang. This appears to have been the successor polity to Srivijaya. A 1405 reference (Tai-zong shi-lu, juan 38.4b) notes that it was "ruled" by a Chinese person from Guang-dong. Following Zheng He's attack on the polity in 1406 or 1407, the Ming established Old Port as a "Pacification Superintendency". MSL references to the polity end in 1430. For some relevant literature, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 272-73, 1011-12), Gerini (1909), Mills (1970; 98-102), Tan Yeok-seong (1962) and Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970). See also San-fo-qi, below.
91. Pahang ( 湓亨 or 彭亨 )
Phonetically "Pen-heng" or "Peng-heng", these names represent the name of the polity of Pahang located in what is today the state of Pahang on the east coast of peninsular Malaysia. For some relevant literature, see Mills (1970; 212), Tibbetts (1979; 137-38), Reid and Marr (1979; 406-13), Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970) and Wyatt (1994; 22-48). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 766-67, 1010).
92. Pangasinan ( 馮家施籣 )
Phonetically"Feng-jia-shi-lan". This undoubtedly represents the polity of Pangasinan in Luzon. See Mills (1970; 183, 193, 211, 228) and Scott (1984 and 1989; 7).
For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 295-96, 1013).
92a. Patani ( 大泥 )
Phonetically "Da-ni", this appears to represent the last two final syllables of "Patani". The Ligor Chronicles list of tributaries noted by Wyatt (1994; 34) also records Patani as "Tani". The MSL references confirm, through the related mention of Siam (q.v.) and the Chinese pirate Lin Dao-qian, that this term indeed refers to Patani. The MSL references can be compared with Hsu Yun-tsiao (1946), Ibrahim Syukri (1985), Teeuw and Wyatt (1970) and Tibbetts (1979; 242). For further details on Patani and Lin Dao-qian, see Wu Yi-lin (1985; 199-218). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 134, 135, 1015-16).
92b. Pegu ( 擺古 )
Phonetically "Bai-gu", this refers to the region of Pegu in today's Burma/Myanmar. This place-name only enters the MSL following the Burman occupation of the region in the 16th century. For some relevant literature, see Lieberman (1980, 1984, 1986), Phayre (1967) and Tibbetts (1979; 233-34). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 800-01, 1017).
92c. Portugal ( 佛朗機 )
Phonetically "Fo-lang-ji" (Persian: Farangi or Arabic: Firanji), this refers to the Portuguese. The Portuguese are only recorded in the MSL following their capture of Melaka in the early 16th century. The Ming Shi devotes a section to the "Fo-lang-ji" and Zhang Wei-hua (1982; 1-56) has provided an annotated version of this. The Portuguese who operated along the coast of China during most of the 16th century and who finally settled at Macau were also known as the "bay yi" (澳夷), presumably after the bays where they conducted trade. In a single case, the MSL records a person as being from a polity named "Pu-li-du-jia" (蒲麗都家) and this was also a reference to Portugal (Shi-zong shi-lu, juan 545.5a). For further literature, see Chang T'ien-tse (1934 and1962), Chang Tseng-hsin (1991) and Ptak (1980). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 1021).
93. Ri-xia-luo-zhi ( 日夏羅治 )
Apparently located in the Southeast Asian maritime realm, this polity has not been firmly identified. It was recorded in the MSL in connection with Die-li (q.v) and Jin-mao-li (q.v.), which suggests that it was possibly a Sumatran polity. The final two syllables suggest "...raja".
94. Samudera ( 蘇門答剌 or 須文達那 )
Phonetically "Su-men-da-la" or "Xu-wen-da-na", this represents the northern Sumatran polity of Samudera. For relevant literature, see Gerini (1909; 639-56), Mills (1970; 115-22), Tibbetts (1909; 639-56) and Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 416-18, 1049-50).
95. San-fo-qi ( 三佛齊 )
Conventionally translated as Srivijaya, but seemingly a Chinese representation of the Arabic toponym Zābaj, through Hokkien vernacular pronunciation “sña-but-zue” of the characters 三佛齊. The term had appeared throughout the Song dynasty, but is only seen in the first half century of the MSL record, and is the name used by previous Chinese dynasties to refer to Srivijaya. The MSL San Fo-qi could well also be Srivijaya, a polity centered initially at Palembang and then at Jambi in Sumatra. For some of the relevant literature, see Coedes and Damais (1992), Fukami (1999), Kobata and Matsuda (1969), Kuwata (1972), Mills (1970; 98, 214), Tan Yeok-seong (1962), Tibbetts (1979, 100-19), Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970) and Wolters (1970). See also the entry on Old Port above. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 129-31, 1045-46).
96. San-jin ( 散金 )
A Yun-nan polity noted as being formerly subject to Lu-chuan, this appears in only one reference, dated 1408. Its location and extent are unknown, but it was likely situated in today's Yun-nan or northern Burma/Myanmar. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Gong Yin 1985; 235 and 1992; 654).
97. Sha-li-wan-ni ( 沙里灣泥 )
A maritime polity recorded in connection with the eunuch-led maritime voyages in the early 15th century. It has not been firmly identified. Some identify it with Sharwayn in Yemen, while others suggest that it is the same as "Sha-li-ba-dan" and that both refer to the Cola port of Solipatam (Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 457). Mills (1970; 12, 13, 215) suggests that it represents Cannanore on the west coast of India. For information on further Chinese sources relating tothis polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 457).
98. She-po ( <阇>婆 )
One of the names used for Java in earlier Chinese texts. The term again had been used during the Tang and Song dynasties, but appears only in two MSL references of the late 14th century. Ma Huan noted that it was an earlier name for Java. (Mills 1970; 86, 216). See also Gerini (1909; 463-68, 519-20, 547-49). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 722-24, 955-56). See also entry on Java above.
99. Shi-la-bi ( 失剌比 )
A maritime polity referred to in connection with the eunuch-led maritime voyages of the early 15th century. Not firmly identified. Mills suggests Selebar on the west coast of Sumatra. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 285).
100. Shun-ning ( 順寧 )
A Yun-nan polity which the Chinese state considered to be a "native prefecture". It was centred on what is today Feng-qing in Yun-nan, PRC. It was bordered on the east by Da-hou (q.v.) and on the south by Wan Dian (q.v.) and Zhen-kang (q.v.). See Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 76). It is likely equivalent to Muang Chan. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 250-260, Fang Guo-yu (1987; 780, 852, 876-77, 1069) and Gong Yin (1985; 127-28 and 1992; 549-50).
101. Si-nan ( 思南 )
A Yun-nan polity only recorded in one MSL reference, dated 1390 (Tai-zu shi-lu, juan 204.4a). This polity has not yet been otherwise identified.
102. Siam ( 暹羅 and 暹羅斛 )
Phonetically "Xian-luo" or "Xian-luo-hu". The latter term is used only during the 14th century. This is the polity, known to historiography as Ayudhya/Ayutthaya, created through the merger of the two polities recorded in Chinese texts as "Xian" and "Luo-hu". It was apparently centred on what is today the city of the same name in Thailand. For some relevant literature, see Coedes (1966; 139-171), Frankfurter (1909), Grimm (1961), Mills (1970; 102-08), Tibbetts (1979; 211-14, 220-23, 235-37), Mabbett (n.d.), Wade (1993), Wang Gungwu 1968 and 1970), Wyatt (1973 and 1994) and Vickery (1977 and 1979). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 844-46, 1037).
103. Sri Lanka ( 錫蘭山 )
Literally “the island of Xi-lan”, this term is a general reference to the island of Sri Lanka and the polities thereon. The MSL references to Sri Lanka extend only from the early 15th century until the middle of that century. The most famous incident in the references is the capture of the "king of Sri Lanka" and his family and their subsequent transportation to China by Zheng He. For an account of the battle during which the ruler was captured, see Su Chung-jen (1970). For further literature, see Mills (1970; 124-29) and De Silva (1991; 94-95). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 810-11).
104. Su-du-song ( 速覩嵩 )
A Yun-nan polity recorded in the MSL between 1407 and 1409. It is noted that this is where the younger brother of the ruler of Ava-Burma was driven off to by the ruler in the early 15th century (Tai-zong shi-lu, juan 71.5a). This may possibly be the same as the city of Su-song (速送城) noted in chapter 199 of Du-shi Fang-yu Ji-yao as a city lying close to Ava (Chen, Xie and Lu 1986; 636).
105. Sulu ( 蘇祿 )
Phonetically "Su-lu", this undoubtedly represents the polity of Sulu/Jolo situated in the area which is today the southern Philippines. For some relevant literature, see Mills (1970; 61, 216, 218), Scott (1984 and 1989) and Zhong-shan University Southeast Asian Historical Research Institute (1980; 75-93, 196-242). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 412-13, 1048).
106. Sun-la ( 孫剌 )
A maritime polity noted in connection with the eunuch-led maritime voyages of the early 15th century. Mills (1970; 218) identifies it as an island in the Maldives or Laccadives. Other identifications range from Sunda and Solo to Socotra in East Africa (Chen, Xie and Lu 1986; 391).
107. Suo-luo ( 娑羅 )
A maritime polity recorded in MSL references extending from 1405 to 1407. See Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970). It has been suggested elsewhere (Wade 1986) that this refers to the polity of Sulu, and that it is also the origin, as the result of copyist error, of the accounts of the non-existent Ming polity of Po-luo (婆羅). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 731-32).
108. Teng-chong ( 騰衝 )
A Yun-nan "native" administrative division centred on what is today Teng-hong on the upper reaches of the Da-ying River in Yun-nan, PRC. It was also known as Momein in Burmese and Mung Myen in Tai. The city was fortified by the Ming state in the mid-15th century and turned into a civil and military administrative centre. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 126-39), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 780, 851, 855, 1063-65) and Gong Yin (1985; 220, 241-44, 246, 249-51 and 1992; 639-40, 665).
108a. Toungoo ( 洞吾 )
This polity first appears in the MSL under the name "”Dong-niu” (東牛) in 1575 (Shen-zong shi-lu, juan 39.7b) and subsequently is represented by “Dong-wu” (洞吾). Both seem to refer to the Burman polity of Toungoo. See also entry for Dong-wu above.
For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 610).
109. Tie-ji-li ( 貼吉里 )
A polity noted as being part of Yun-nan. There are only two MSL references to the polity, one of which notes that its envoy came to the Chinese court with the envoy of Di-wu-la (Tripura). There has been no firm identification established for this polity, but it was likely situated in today's Assam in India or the present northern Bangladesh or Burma. The ruler of Tie-ji-li is in one reference (Xuan-zong shi-lu, juan 67.6b-7a) recorded as “Tu-le-na-lan” (都樂納蘭), which suggests "...narayan", a common final element in the names of the Koch and Kachari rulers.
110. Wa Dian ( 瓦甸 )
A polity noted in the MSL as being subordinate to the Jin-chi Command in Yun-nan. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) depicts its seat as lying on the Long-chuan River about 50 kilometres north of Teng-chong. Gong Yin (1985; 229) notes this as a Jinghpo (Singhpo) polity. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 851, 856, 1063) and Gong Yin (1985; 229 and 1992; 648).
111. Wan Dian ( 灣甸 )
A Yun-nan polity ruled by a Tai elite. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) depicts it as lying north of Zhen-kang, centred on what is still today called Wan Dian. It is possibly equivalent to the Mong Kyeng of the Shan (Scott and Hardiman 1900; Part II, Vol. 2, 382). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 261-64, 945), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 852, 873-74, 1070) and Gong Yin (1985; 220-22 and 1992; 640-41).
112. Wei-yuan ( 威遠 )
A Yun-nan polity ruled by a Tai elite. Centred on today's Jing-gu County in Yun-nan, with territory including parts of modern Pu-er County, Yun-nan, PRC. A Sinicized Tai text on Wei-yuan with Chinese translation can be found in Dao, Xue and Zhou (1990). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 106-111), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 884, 885-86, 1073-74) and Gong Yin (1985; 182-83 and 1992; 601-02).
114. Xi-gan-da-li(-ye) ( 西干達哩耶 )
Probably a maritime polity, from which Muslims accompanied the Old Port (q.v.) envoys to the Chinese court in 1406 (Tai-zong shi-lu, juan 56.7a). No firm identification of this polity has been established. If the initial character (Xi = West) is a translation rather than a phonetic element, Gan-da-li could probably be equated with the still unidentified maritime polity of Gan-tuo-li (干陀利) (Kandari?). The MSL appears to be the only text which notes “Xi-gan-da-li” or “Xi-gan-da-li-ye”. For Chinese sources relating to Gan-tuo-li, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 122-23).
115. Xi-yang / Xi-yang Suo-li ( 西洋/西洋瑣里 )
Literally "Western Ocean" or "Western Ocean Suo-li". "Western Ocean" was a generic name for the seas of Southeast Asia extending from the west of Borneo to the Indian Ocean. It was also used as the name, with or without the "Suo-li" addition, of a polity on the South Asian subcontinent. "Suo-li" likely represents "Cola". For some further literature, see Mills (1970; 195) and Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 338-39, 691-92).
116. Xiao Ge-lan ( 小葛蘭 )
Literally "Lesser Ge-lan". The "Ge-lan" refers to the town of Quilon on the west coast of India. For Ma Huan's account of the polity, see Mills (1970; 130-132). See also Wang Gungwu (1968 and 1970). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 1024-25).
117. Xiao Gu-la ( 小古剌 )
Literally, "Lesser Gu-la". The MSL records this initially as an independent polity and subsequently under Da Gu-la. Likely this was located in today's Assam. For further details, see the entry under Da Gu-la above. See also Baruah (1985) and Chen Ru-xing (1993). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Gong Yin (1985; 237-38 and 1992; 657).
118. Yin-yuan-luo-bi Dian ( 因遠羅必甸 )
A Yun-nan polity recorded in the MSL for the period from 1385 to 1450. Gong Yin (1985; 316) describes it as a Yi (Lo-lo) polity located to the west of the modern Yuan-jiang in Yun-nan, PRC. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 890, 1072) and Gong Yin (1985; 316-17 and 1992; 733).
118a. Yong-chang ( 永昌 )
A Yun-nan "native office" which became a civil and military administrative centre for western Yun-nan. Centred on today's Bao-shan in Yun-nan, it "managed" territory on both sides of the Salween River valley. See Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) for one version of the reconstructed extent of Yong-chang Prefecture. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 112-25), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 780, 850, 852-54, 1061-62, 1065-76) and Gong Yin (1985; 195-252 and 1992; 614-72).
119. Yuan-jiang ( 沅江 )
A polity ruled by a Tai elite and centred on what is today the seat of Yuan-jiang County on the middle reaches of the Red River in Yun-nan, PRC. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 79) depicts its territory extending south into what is today northern Laos. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 93-98, 939-40), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 778, 798, 884, 888-90, 1071, 1072) and Gong Yin
(1985; 309-11, 313, 314 and 1992; 725-28, 729-31).
120. Yun-nan ( 雲南 )
First mentioned in the MSL as a “country”, Yun-nan was occupied by the Ming forces and subsequently became one of the Ming provinces. It was also a general geographic term which encompassed virtually all of the upland Southeast Asian polities. For relevant literature on Yun-nan, see Fang Guo-yu (1984 and 1987), Fitzgerald (1972; 60-78) and Li Xiao-yuan (1988).
121. Zhao-min-te-ling ( 詔閩特令 )
A minor Yun-nan polity, also apparently known simply as “Te-ling” (Tai-zong shi-lu, juan 126.3b). The MSL references to this polity extend only from 1403 to 1415.
122. Zhao-na-pu-er ( 沼納樸兒 )
The Indian polity of Jaunpur, situated in what is today Bihar, India. See Mills (1970; 186, 215) and Ray (1993). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 529-30).
123. Zhe-le Dian ( 者勒甸 )
A Yun-nan polity ruled by a Tai elite. The Ming Shi notes that it was previously known as Zhe-dao (者島) and was part of Ma-long-ta-lang (q.v.) (Gong Yin 1985; 322). Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78-79) depicts it as being located to the north of Zhen-yuan (q.v.) on the upper reaches of the Black River in Yun-nan. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 884, 887-88, 1072) and Gong Yin (1985; 322-23).
124. Zhen-kang ( 鎮康 )
A Yun-nan polity ruled by a Tai elite. It was also known in Tai as Meung-kyeng. The Chinese "kang" obviously represents the Tai "kyeng". It thus seems that the Chinese term "zhen" (= a mart or town) was introduced into the name to replace the Tai term "muang/meung" (= polity), but that the Tai word order of modifier following noun was retained. Tan Qi-xiang (1982; 78) depicts the polity as being located north of Meng-ding (q.v.), west of Meng-mian (q.v.) and south of Yong-chang (q.v.), with territory extending into today's Shan State in northern Burma/Myanmar. There is still today a Zhen-kang County in Yun-nan, PRC. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Dao Yong-ming (1989; 265-68, 946), Fang Guo-yu (1987; 852, 873, 1070) and Gong Yin (1985; 222-24 and 1992; 641-43).
125. Zhen-yuan ( 鎮沅 )
A Yun-nan polity ruled by a Tai elite. Tan Qi-xiang locates Zhen-yuan just south of the modern city of the same name, on the Yuan-jiang River, an eastern tributary of the Mekong, in Yun-nan, PRC. If we assume the same process as suggested in the entry under Zhen-kang above, this polity may well have been known in Tai as Meung-yuan. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Fang Guo-yu (1987; 779, 884, 887, 1072) and Gong Yin (1985; 321-25 and 1992; 738-39).
126. Zhu-bu ( 竹步 )
A maritime polity recorded in connection with the eunuch-led voyages in the early 15th century. Mills (1970; 192) identifies it with Giumbo in Somalia on the east coast of Africa. For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 351).
127. Zu-fa-er/ Zuo-fa-er ( 祖法兒/佐法兒 )
A maritime polity recorded in connection with the eunuch-led voyages in the early 15th century. It appears to represent the name "Dhufar", an obsolete name for Al-Mansura, on the southern coast of Arabia (Mills 1970; 151-54, 223). For information on further Chinese sources relating to this polity, see Chen, Xie and Lu (1986; 426, 607).